Majapahit
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The
Majapahit Empire (
Javanese: ꦏꦫꦠꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀
Karaton Majapahit,
Indonesian:
Kerajaan Majapahit) was a in
Southeast Asia, based on the island of
Java (part of modern-day Indonesia), that existed from 1293 to circa 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of
Hayam Wuruk,
whose reign from 1350 to 1389 was marked by conquest which extended
through Southeast Asia. His achievement is also credited to his prime
minister,
Gajah Mada. According to the
Nagarakretagama (
Desawarñana) written in 1365, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from
Sumatra to
New Guinea;
[4](p87)[5] consisting of present-day
Indonesia,
Singapore,
Malaysia,
Brunei, southern
Thailand,
Sulu Archipelago, Philippines, and
East Timor, although the true nature of Majapahit sphere of influence is still the subject of studies among historians.
[6][7]
thalassocracy
Majapahit was one of the last major empires of the region and is
considered to be one of the greatest and most powerful empires in the
history of Indonesia and Southeast Asia, one that is sometimes seen as
the precedent for Indonesia's modern boundaries.
[8](p19)[9] Its influence extended beyond the modern territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies.
[10][11]
Etymology
The name
Majapahit derives from local
Javanese, meaning "bitter
maja". German orientalist
Berthold Laufer suggested that
maja came from the Javanese name of
Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree.
[12] The name originally referred to the area in and around
Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit, which was linked to the establishment of a village in Tarik timberland by
Raden Wijaya.
It was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered
some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently
become the village's name.
[2] In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capital's name. Majapahit (sometimes also spelled
Mojopait) is also known by other names:
Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as
Bhumi Jawa or
Mandala Jawa instead.
Historiography
Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains,
[13] and some details of the history are rather abstract.
[8](p18) Nevertheless, local
Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as
Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in
Babad Tanah Jawi,
a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did
produce physical evidence: the main ruins dating from the Majapahit
period are clustered in the
Trowulan area, which was the royal capital of the kingdom. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by
Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant-Governor of
British Java of
British East India Company
from 1811 to 1816. He reported the existence of "ruins of temples....
scattered about the country for many miles", and referred to Trowulan as
"this pride of Java".
[14]
By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study
old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their
colony. Two primary sources were available to them: the
Pararaton ('Book of Kings') manuscript was written in the
Kawi language c. 1600, and
Nagarakretagama (Desawarnaña) was composed in
Old Javanese in 1365.
[15] Pararaton focuses on
Ken Arok, the founder of
Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The
Nagarakretagama is an old
Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of
Hayam Wuruk, after which some events are covered narratively.
[8](p18) The Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their
military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of
Lombok. There are also some inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese.
The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as
C. C. Berg,
an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire
historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural
means by which the future can be determined.
[ii][6]
Most scholars do not accept this view, as the historical record
corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar
intention. The list of rulers and details of the state structure show no
sign of being invented.
[8](p18)
The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit mainly acquired from the chronicles of
Yuan and following
Ming dynasty. The Chinese accounts on Majapahit, mainly owed to the 15th century
Zheng He's account — a
Ming Dynasty admiral reports during
his visit to Majapahit between 1405 and 1432. Zheng He's translator
Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived.
[17] The report was composed and collected in
Yingya Shenglan, which provides a valuable insight on the culture, customs, also various social and economic aspects of
Chao-Wa (Java) during Majapahit period.
[18]
The
Trowulan archaeological area
has become the center for the study of Majapahit history. The aerial
and satellite imagery has revealed extensive network of canals
criss-crossing the Majapahit capital.
[19]
Recent archaeological findings from April 2011 indicate the Majapahit
capital was much larger than previously believed after some artefacts
were uncovered.
[20]
History
Formation
After
defeating the
Melayu Kingdom[21] in Sumatra in 1290,
Singhasari became the most powerful kingdom in the region.
Kublai Khan, the
Great Khan of the
Mongol Empire and the Emperor of the
Mongol Yuan Dynasty, challenged Singhasari by sending emissaries demanding tribute.
Kertanegara,
the last ruler of Singhasari, refused to pay the tribute, insulted the
Mongol envoy, and challenged the Khan instead. In response, Kublai Khan
sent a massive expedition of 1,000 ships to Java in 1293.
Mongol invasion
Painting of a 14th-century
Yuan junk. Similar ships were sent by the Yuan in their naval armada.
By that time,
Jayakatwang, the
Adipati (Duke) of
Kediri,
a vassal state of Singhasari, had usurped and killed Kertanagara. After
being pardoned by Jayakatwang with the aid of Madura's regent, Arya
Wiraraja;
Raden Wijaya, Kertanegara's son-in-law, was given the land of
Tarik timberland. He then opened the vast timberland and built a new settlement there. The village was named
Majapahit, which was taken from the name of a fruit that had a bitter taste (
maja is the fruit name and
pahit
means bitter). When the Mongolian Yuan army sent by Kublai Khan
arrived, Wijaya allied himself with the army to fight against
Jayakatwang. Once Jayakatwang was destroyed, Raden Wijaya forced his
allies to withdraw from Java by launching a surprise attack.
[22] Yuan's army had to withdraw in confusion as they were in hostile territory. It was also their last chance to catch the
monsoon winds home; otherwise, they would have had to wait for another six months.
The first king, Kertarajasa Jayawardhana
In 1293,
Raden Wijaya founded a stronghold with the capital Majapahit.
[23]:200–201 The exact date used as the birth of the Majapahit kingdom is the day of his coronation, the 15th of
Kartika month in the year 1215 using the Javanese
çaka calendar, which equates to 10 November 1293.
[2]
During his coronation he was given the formal name Kertarajasa
Jayawardhana. King Kertarajasa took all four daughters of Kertanegara as
his wives, his first wife and prime queen consort Tribhuwaneswari, and
her sisters; Prajnaparamita, Narendraduhita, and
Gayatri Rajapatni the youngest. He also took a
Sumatran Malay
Dharmasraya princess named
Dara Petak as his wife.
The new kingdom faced challenges. Some of Kertarajasa's most trusted men, including
Ranggalawe, Sora, and Nambi were rebelled against him, though unsuccessfully. It was suspected that the
Mahapati (a title equal to prime minister)
Halayudha
set the conspiracy to overthrow all of his rivals in the court, led
them to revolt against the king, while he himself gained king's favour
and attained the highest position in the government. However, following
the death of the last rebel Kuti, Halayudha's treachery was exposed,
subsequently he was captured, jailed for his stratagems and then
sentenced to death.
[22] Wijaya himself died in 1309.
Jayanegara
Kertarajasa Wijaya was succeeded by his heir
Jayanegara, his son with his
Malayu Dharmasraya spouse,
Indreswari.
The reign of Jayanegara was a difficult and chaotic one, troubled with
several rebellions by his father's former companions in arms. Among
others are Gajah Biru's rebellion in 1314 and the Kuti rebellion in
1319. Kuti rebellion is the most dangerous one, as Kuti managed to take
control of the capital city. With the help of
Gajah Mada and his
Bhayangkara palace guard,
[23]:233
Jayanegara barely escaped from the capital and safely hiding in
Badander village. While the king was in hiding, Gajah Mada returned to
the capital city to learn the situation. After learning that Kuti's
rebellion was not supported by the people as well as nobles of Majapahit
court, Gajah Mada wage a resistance forces to crush Kuti rebellion.
Finally Kuti forces was crushed and Jayanegara safely returned to his
throne. For his loyalty and excellent service, Gajah Mada was promoted
to higher office and begin his career in court royal politics.
[24]
According to tradition, Wijaya's son and successor, Jayanegara, was
notorious for immorality. One of his distasteful acts was his desire to
take his own stepsisters — Gitarja and Rajadewi, as wives. The practice
of half siblings marriage is abhorred Javanese tradition, subsequently
the council of royal elders speak strongly against king's wishes. It was
not clear the motivation of Jayanegara's wish — it might be his way to
ensure his throne legitimacy by preventing rivals from his half sisters'
suitors. Although in Majapahit court in later period, the custom of
marriage among cousins was quite common. In Pararaton, he was entitled
as
Kala Gemet, or "weak villain". Approximately during Jayanegara's reign, the Italian Friar
Odoric of Pordenone visited the Majapahit court in Java.
In 1328, Jayanegara was murdered by his physician, Tanca, during a
surgical operation. In tumult, Gajah Mada immediately killed Tanca. It
was not clear the motive behind this murder. According to Pararaton, it
was Tanca's revenge for the king had sexually abused his wife. However,
according to Balinese manuscript Babad Dalem, the assassination was a
stratagem crafted by Gajah Mada, in order to protect the kingdom from
being ruled by an evil tyrant. The tradition mentioned that the immoral,
cruel and abusive king often seduces and abuses women, even the wives
of his own subordinates.
[25]
Other possible reason includes to protect the two princesses — Gitarja
and Rajadewi, the daughters of Gayatri Rajapatni from the cruel king.
Since the slain king was childless, he left no successor.
Golden age
Queen Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi
Jayanegara's stepmother, Gayatri Rajapatni — the most revered
matriarch of Majapahit court — was supposed to take the helm. However,
Rajapatni had retired from worldly affairs to become a
Bhikkhuni. Rajapatni appointed her daughter,
Dyah Gitarja,
or known in her formal regnal name as Tribhuwannottungadewi
Jayawishnuwardhani, as the queen of Majapahit under Rajapatni's
auspices. Tribhuwana appointed
Gajah Mada as the Prime Minister in 1336. During his inauguration Gajah Mada declared his
Sumpah Palapa, revealing his plan to expand Majapahit realm and building an
empire.
[9]
During Tribhuwana’s rule, the Majapahit kingdom grew much larger and
became famous in the area. Under the initiative of her able and
ambitious prime minister,
Gajah Mada, Majapahit sent its armada to conquer the neighbouring island of
Bali.
[23]:234
According to the Babad Arya Tabanan manuscript, in 1342 Majapahit
forces led by Gajah Mada, assisted by his general Arya Damar, the regent
of Palembang, landed in Bali. After seven months of battles, Majapahit
forces defeated the Balinese king and captured the Balinese capital of
Bedulu in 1343. After the conquest of Bali, Majapahit distributed the
governing authority of Bali among Arya Damar's younger brothers, Arya
Kenceng, Arya Kutawandira, Arya Sentong, and Arya Belog. Arya Kenceng
led his brothers to govern Bali under Majapahit suzerainty, and he would
become the progenitor of the Balinese kings of the Tabanan and Badung
royal houses. Through this campaign, Majapahit planted a vassal dynasty
that would rule the
Bali Kingdom
in the following centuries. Tribhuwana ruled Majapahit until the death
of her mother in 1350. She abdicated the throne in favour of her son,
Hayam Wuruk.
Reign of Hayam Wuruk and Gajah Mada's conquest
Expansion of the Majapahit Empire started in Trowulan Majapahit in the
13th century and extended to much of the Indonesian archipelago until it
receded and fell in the early 16th century.
Hayam Wuruk,
also known as Rajasanagara, ruled Majapahit in 1350–89. During this
period, Majapahit attained its peak with the help of prime minister
Gajah Mada. Under Gajah Mada's command (1313–64), Majapahit conquered more territories and became the regional power.
[23]:234 According to the
Nagarakretagama, canto XIII and XIV mentioned several states in
Sumatra,
Malay Peninsula,
Borneo,
Sulawesi,
Nusa Tenggara islands,
Maluku,
New Guinea,
Mindanao,
Sulu Archipelago and some parts of the
Visayas islands as under Majapahit realm of power. The
Hikayat Raja Pasai, a 14th-century
Aceh chronicle describe a Majapahit naval invasion on
Samudra Pasai in 1350.
[26]
This expansion marked the greatest extent of Majapahit, making it one
of the most influential empires in the Indonesian history. It is
considered as a commercial trading empire in the civilisation of Asia.
Along with launching naval and military expeditions, the expansion of
the Majapahit Empire also involved diplomacy and alliance. Hayam Wuruk
decided, probably for political reasons, to take princess
Citra Rashmi (Dyah Pitaloka) of neighbouring
Sunda Kingdom as his
consort.
[27]
The Sundanese took this proposal as an alliance agreement. In 1357 the
Sunda king and his royal family came to Majapahit to accompany and marry
his daughter to Hayam Wuruk.
[23]:239
However, Gajah Mada saw this event as an opportunity to demand Sunda's
submission to Majapahit overlordship. The skirmish between the Sunda
royal family and the Majapahit troops on Bubat square was inevitable.
Despite courageous resistance, the royal family were overwhelmed and
decimated. Almost the whole of the Sundanese royal party were killed.
[28] Tradition mentioned that the heartbroken princess committed
suicide to defend the honour of her country.
[29] The
Battle of Bubat, or the Pasunda Bubat tragedy, became the main theme of
Kidung Sunda, also mentioned in
Carita Parahyangan and
Pararaton, however it was never mentioned in
Nagarakretagama.
The
Nagarakretagama, written in 1365, depicts a sophisticated
court with refined taste in art and literature and a complex system of
religious rituals. The poet describes Majapahit as the centre of a huge
mandala extending from
New Guinea and
Maluku to
Sumatra and the
Malay Peninsula. Local traditions in many parts of Indonesia retain accounts of 14th-century Majapahit's power in more or less
legendary form. The direct administration of Majapahit did not extend beyond
east Java and
Bali, but challenges to Majapahit's claim to overlordship in outer islands drew forceful responses.
[30](p106)
In an effort to revive the fortune of
Malayu in Sumatra, in the 1370s, a Malay ruler of
Palembang sent an envoy to the court of
the first emperor of the newly established
Ming dynasty. He invited China to resume the tributary system, just like
Srivijaya
did several centuries earlier. Learning this diplomatic maneuver,
immediately King Hayam Wuruk sent an envoy to Nanking, convinced the
emperor that Malayu was their vassal, and was not an independent
country.
[7]
Subsequently, in 1377—a few years after the death of Gajah Mada,
Majapahit sent a punitive naval attack against a rebellion in Palembang,
[8](p19) contributing to the end of Srivijayan successor kingdom. Gajah Mada's other renowned general was
Adityawarman, known for his conquest in
Minangkabau.
[31][self-published source]
In the 14th century a Malay
Kingdom of Singapura was established, and it promptly attracted a Majapahit navy that regarded it as
Tumasik, a rebellious colony. Singapura was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398.
[33][34][35] The last king,
Sri Iskandar Shah, fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula to establish the
Melaka Sultanate in 1400.
The nature of the Majapahit empire and its extent is subject to
debate. It may have had limited or entirely notional influence over some
of the
tributary states, including Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula,
Kalimantan, and eastern Indonesia, over which authority was claimed in the
Nagarakretagama.
[36]
Geographical and economic constraints suggest that rather than a
regular centralised authority, the outer states were most likely to have
been connected mainly by trade connections, which were probably a royal
monopoly.
[8](p19) It also claimed relationships with
Champa,
Cambodia,
Siam, southern Burma, and Vietnam, and even sent missions to China.
[8](p19)
Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands
and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on
controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that
passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded,
Muslim traders and
proselytisers began entering the area.
Decline
Following Hayam Wuruk's death in 1389, Majapahit power entered a period of decline with conflict over succession.
[23]:241 Hayam Wuruk was succeeded by the crown princess Kusumawardhani, who married a relative, Prince
Wikramawardhana. Hayam Wuruk also had a son from his previous marriage, crown prince
Wirabhumi, who also claimed the throne.
Paregreg war
A civil war, called
Paregreg, is thought to have occurred from 1405 to 1406.
[8](p18) The war was fought as the contest of succession between
Western court led by
Wikramawardhana, against
Eastern court led by
Bhre Wirabhumi.
Wikramawardhana was victorious and Wirabhumi was caught and
decapitated. The civil war has drained financial resources, exhausted
the kingdom, and weakened Majapahit's grip on its outer vassals and
colonies.
[37]
Despite weakened by internal struggle, in 1409 Majapahit continued its invasion against West Sumatran
Pagaruyung Kingdom, as recorded in a semi-legendary account of the
Minangkabau legend. It was mentioned that the Javanese force was being defeated in a buffalo fight.
[38]
Wikramawardhana and Ming expedition
The route of the voyages of Zheng He's fleet, including Majapahit ports.
During the reign of Wikramawardhana, a series of
Ming armada
naval expeditions led by
Zheng He,
[23]:241–242 a
Muslim
Chinese admiral, arrived in Java several times spanning the period from
1405 to 1433. This Chinese voyages visited numbers of ports in Asia as
far as Africa, which including Majapahit ports. It was said that Zheng
He has paid a visit to the Majapahit court in Java.
This Chinese massive voyages was not merely a naval exploration, but
it was a show of power and a display of geopolitical reach. The Chinese
Ming dynasty had recently overthrown the Mongols Yuan dynasty, and were
eager to establish their hegemony in the world, which changed the
geopolitical balance in Asia.
[39]
Chinese intervened in the politics of the southern seas by supporting
Thais against the declining Khmer Empire, support and installing allied
factions in India, Sri Lanka and other places in Indian Ocean coasts.
However, perhaps the most significant Chinese intervention was its
support for the newly established
Sultanate of Malacca, as a rival and counter-weight to the Majapahit influence of Java.
[39]
Previously, Majapahit has succeed to assert its influence in Malacca
strait by contained the aspiration of Malay polities in Sumatra and
Malay Peninsula to ever reach the geopolitical might like those of
Srivijaya. The Hindu Majapahit were the most powerful maritime power in
Southeast Asian seas that time and were opposed to Chinese expansion
into their sphere of influence. The Ming's support for Malacca has
weakened Majapahit maritime influence in the region that finally reduced
only in Java sea and eastern Indonesian waters.
This Ming dynasty voyages is extremely important for Majapahit historiography, since Zheng He's translator
Ma Huan wrote
Yingya Shenglan, a detailed description of Majapahit,
[17]
which provides a valuable insight on the culture, customs, also various
social and economic aspects of Java during Majapahit period.
[18]
Chinese provided systematic support to Malacca, and its sultan made
at least one trip to personally pay obeisance to the Ming emperor.
Malacca actively encouraged the conversion to Islam in the region, while
Ming fleet actively established Chinese-Malay Muslim community in
coastal northern Java, thus created a permanent opposition to the Hindus
of Java. By 1430, the expeditions had established Muslim Chinese, Arab
and Malay communities in northern ports of Java such as
Semarang,
Demak,
Tuban, and
Ampel;
thus Islam began to gain a foothold on the northern coast of Java.
Malacca prospered under Chinese Ming protection, while the Majapahit
were steadily pushed back.
[39]
Queen Suhita
Wikramawardhana ruled until 1426 and was succeeded by his daughter
Suhita,
[23]:242
who ruled from 1426 to 1447. She was the second child of
Wikramawardhana by a concubine who was the daughter of Wirabhumi. The
reign of Suhita was the second time Majapahit was reigned by a queen
regnant after her great grandmother Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi. Her
reign is immortalized in Javanese legend of
Damarwulan, as it involves a maiden queen named Prabu Kenya in the story, and during Suhita's reign there was a war with
Blambangan as stated in the legend.
[40]
In 1447, Suhita died and was succeeded by
Kertawijaya, her brother.
[23]:242 He ruled until 1451. After Kertawijaya died,
Bhre Pamotan
became a king with formal name Rajasawardhana. He died in 1453. A
three-year kingless period was possibly the result of a succession
crisis.
Girisawardhana, son of Kertawijaya, came to power in 1456. He died in 1466 and was succeeded by Singhawikramawardhana.
The divide
In
1468 Prince Kertabhumi rebelled against Singhawikramawardhana,
promoting himself as the king of Majapahit. Deposed
Singhawikramawardhana retreated upstream of Brantas River, moved the
kingdom’s capital further inland to
Daha (the former capital of
Kediri kingdom),
effectively splitting Majapahit, under Bhre Kertabumi in Trowulan and
Singhawikramawardhana in Daha. Singhawikramawardhana continued his rule
until he was succeeded by his son
Girindrawardhana (Ranawijaya) in 1474.
In the western part of the crumbling empire, Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of the
Sultanate of Malacca that in the mid-15th century began to gain effective control of
Malacca Strait
and expand its influence to Sumatra. Several other former Majapahit
vassals and colonies began to release themselves from Majapahit
domination and
suzerainty.
But Kertabhumi managed to reverse this event, under his rule he allied
Majapahit with Muslim merchants, giving them trading rights on the north
coast of Java, with Demak as its centre and in return he asked for
their loyalty to Majapahit. This policy boosted the Majapahit treasury
and power but weakened Hindu-Buddhism as its main religion because Islam
spread faster. Hindu-Buddhist followers' grievances later paved the way
for Ranawijaya to defeat Kertabumi.
Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 (that is, 1400
Saka, the ends of centuries being considered a time when changes of dynasty or courts normally ended
[8](pp37 and 100)) to 1517.
[iii] Actually 1478 was the year of
Sudarma Wisuta war,
when a Ranawijaya army under general Udara (who later became
vice-regent) breached Trowulan defences and killed Kertabumi in his
palace,
[41][42]
Demak sent reinforcements under
Sunan Ngudung, who later died in battle and was replaced by
Sunan Kudus,
but they came too late to save Kertabumi although they managed to repel
the Ranawijaya army. This event is mentioned in Trailokyapuri (Jiwu)
and Petak inscription, where Ranawijaya claimed that he already defeated
Kertabhumi and reunited Majapahit as one Kingdom.
[43]
Ranawijaya ruled from 1474 to 1498 with the formal name
Girindrawardhana, with Udara as his vice-regent. This event led to the
war between the
Sultanate of Demak and
Daha, since Demak rulers were descendants of Kertabhumi.
Demak invasion and the fall of Majapahit
Demak was the earliest Islamic polity in Java that replaced Majapahit.
In 1498, there was a turning point when Girindrawardhana was deposed
by his vice regent, Udara. After this coup, the war between Demak and
Daha receded, with some sources saying
Raden Patah,
Sultan of Demak, left Majapahit alone as his father had done before,
while others said Udara agreed to become a vassal of Demak, even
marrying Raden Patah's youngest daughter.
In the west,
Malacca was captured by Portuguese in 1511. The delicate balance between Demak and Daha ended when Udara asked
Portugal for help in Malacca and forced Demak to attack both Malacca and Daha under
Adipati Yunus to end this alliance.
[iv] A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of
Bali. The refugees probably fled to avoid Demak retribution for their support for Ranawijaya against Kertabhumi.
With the fall of Daha, crushed by Demak in 1517,
[8](pp36–37) the Muslim emerging forces finally defeated the remnants of the Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.
[46]
Demak came under the leadership of Raden (later crowned as Sultan)
Patah (Arabic name: Fatah), who was acknowledged as the legitimate
successor of Majapahit. According to Babad Tanah Jawi and Demak
tradition, the source of Patah's legitimacy was because their first
sultan, Raden Patah, was the son of Majapahit king Brawijaya V with a
Chinese concubine. Another argument supports Demak as the successor of
Majapahit; the rising Demak sultanate was easily accepted as the nominal
regional ruler, as Demak was the former Majapahit vassal and located
near the former Majapahit realm in Eastern Java.
Demak established itself as the regional power and the first Islamic
sultanate in Java. After the fall of Majapahit, the Hindu kingdoms in
Java only remained in
Blambangan on the eastern edge and
Pajajaran in the western part. Gradually
Hindu communities began to retreat to the mountain ranges in East Java and also to the neighbouring island of
Bali. A small enclave of
Hindu communities still remain in the
Tengger mountain range.
Culture, art and architecture
The main event of the administrative calendar took place on the first day of the month of
Caitra (March–April) when representatives from all territories paying
tax or
tribute
to Majapahit came to the capital to pay court. Majapahit's territories
were roughly divided into three types: the palace and its vicinity; the
areas of east Java and Bali which were directly administered by
officials appointed by the king; and the outer
dependencies which enjoyed substantial internal
autonomy.
[30](p107)
Culture
Wringin Lawang, the 15.5-meter tall
red brick split gate in
Trowulan, believed to be the entrance of an important compound.
The capital
Trowulan, was grand and known for its great annual festivities.
Buddhism,
Shaivism, and
Vaishnavism were all practised: the king was regarded as the incarnation of the three. The
Nagarakretagama does not mention
Islam, but there were certainly Muslim courtiers by this time.
[8](p19)
The first European record about Majapahit came from the travel log of the
Italian Mattiussi, a Franciscan monk. In his book: "Travels of Friar
Odoric of Pordenone", he visited several places in today's Indonesia: Sumatra, Java, and
Banjarmasin
in Borneo, between 1318–1330. He was sent by the Pope to launch a
mission into the Asian interiors. In 1318 he departed from Padua,
crossed the Black Sea into Persia, all the way across Calcutta, Madras,
and Sri Lanka. He then headed to Nicobar island all the way to Sumatra,
before visiting Java and Banjarmasin. He returned to Italy by land
through Vietnam, China, all the way through the
silkroad to Europe in 1330.
In his book he mentioned that he visited Java without explaining the
exact place he had visited. He said that king of Java ruled over seven
other kings (vassals). He also mentioned that in this island was found a
lot of
clove,
cubeb,
nutmeg
and many other spices. He mentioned that the King of Java had an
impressive, grand, and luxurious palace. The stairs and palace interior
were coated with gold and silver, and even the roofs were gilded. He
also recorded that the kings of the
Mongol
had repeatedly tried to attack Java, but always ended up in failure and
managed to be sent back to the mainland. The Javanese kingdom mentioned
in this record is Majapahit, and the time of his visit is between
1318–1330 during the reign of
Jayanegara.
In
Yingya Shenglan — a record about
Zheng He's expedition (1405-1433) —
Ma Huan describes the culture, customs, various social and economic aspects of
Chao-Wa (Java) during Majapahit period.
[18] Ma Huan visited Java during Zheng He's 4th expedition in the 1413, during the reign of Majapahit king
Wikramawardhana. He describes his travel to Majapahit capital, first he arrived to the port of
Tu-pan (
Tuban) where he saw large numbers of Chinese settlers migrated from
Guangdong and Chou Chang. Then he sailed east to thriving new trading town of
Ko-erh-hsi (
Gresik),
Su-pa-erh-ya (
Surabaya), and then sailing inland into the river by smaller boat to southwest until reached the river port of
Chang-ku (Changgu).
[18] Continued travel by land to southwest he arrived in
Man-che-po-I
(Majapahit), where the king stay. There are about 200 or 300 foreign
families resides in this place, with seven or eight leaders to serve the
king. The climate is constantly hot, like summer.
[17]
He describes the king’s costumes; wearing a crown of gold leaves and
flowers or sometimes without any headgear; bare-chested without wearing a
robe, the bottom parts wears two sash of embroidered silk. Additional
silk rope is looped around the waist as a belt, and the belt is inserted
with one or two short blades, called
pu-la-t'ou (
belati or more precisely
kris dagger), walking barefoot. When travelling outside, the king riding an elephant or an ox-drawn carriage.
[17]
The graceful
Bidadari Majapahit, golden celestial
apsara in Majapahit style perfectly describes Majapahit as "the golden age" of the archipelago.
Commoners’ clothing for men is without headgear and women arrange
their hair as a bun secured with hairpin. They wore clothing on the
upper body and wrapped unstitched fabrics around the bottom part,
[v] Men from a boy aged three to elders slipped
pu-la-t'ou
(dagger) in their belt. The dagger, made entirely of steel with
intricate motifs smoothly drawn. The handles are made of gold, rhino’s
horn or ivory carved with a depiction of human or demon, the carving
works are exquisite and skilfully made.
[17][18]
Majapahit people, men and women, favoured their head.
[vi]
If someone was touched on his head, or if there is a misunderstanding
or argument when drunk, they will instantly draw their knives and stab
each other. When the one being stabbed was wounded and dead, the
murderer will flee and hide for three days, then he will not lose his
life. But if he was caught during the fight, he will instantly stabbed
to death (execution by stabbing). The country of Majapahit knows no
caning
for major or minor punishment. They tied the guilty men on his hands in
the back with rattan rope and paraded them, and then stabbed the
offender in the back where there is a floating rib which resulted in
instant death.
[17] Judicial executions of this kind were frequent.
Population of the country did not have a bed or chair to sit, and to
eat they do not use a spoon or chopsticks. Men and women enjoy chewing
betel nut mixed with,
betel leaves, and white chalk made from ground mussels shells.
[18]
They eat rice for meal, first they took a scoop of water and soak betel
in their mouth, then wash their hands and sit down to make a circle;
getting a plate of rice soaked in butter (probably
coconut milk)
and gravy, and eat using hands to lift the rice and put it in their
mouth. When receiving guests, they will offer the guests, not the tea,
but with betel nut.
[17]
The population consisted of Muslim merchants from the west (Arab and
Muslim Indians, but mostly those from Muslim states in Sumatra), Chinese
(claimed to be descendants of
Tang dynasty), and unrefined locals. The king held annual jousting tournaments.
[17](p45)
About the marriage rituals; the groom pays a visit to the house of the
bride's family, the marriage union is consummated. Three days later, the
groom escorts his bride back to his home, where the man’s family beat
drums and brass gongs, blowing pipes made from coconut shells (
senterewe), beating a drum made from bamboo tubes (probably a kind of bamboo
gamelan or
kolintang), and light fireworks.
[18]
Escorted in front, behind, and around by men holding short blades and
shields. While the bride is a matted-hair woman, with uncovered body and
barefooted. She wraps herself in embroidered silk, wears a necklace
around her neck adorned with gold beads, and bracelets on her wrist with
ornaments of gold, silver and other precious ornaments. Family, friends
and neighbours decorate a decorative boat with betel leaf, areca nut,
reeds and flowers were sewn, and arrange a party to welcome the couple
on such a festive occasion. When the groom arrives home, the gong and
drum are sounded, they will drink wine (possibly
arack or
tuak) and play music. After a few days the festivities end.
[17]
About the burial rituals, the dead body was left on beach or empty
land to be devoured by dogs (for lower-class), cremated, or committed
into the waters (Javanese:
larung). The upper-class performed
suttee, a ritual suicide by widowed wives, concubines or female servants, through
self immolation by throwing themselves into flaming cremation fire.
[17][18]
In this record, Ma Huan also describes a musical troupes travelling
during full moon nights. Numbers of people holding shoulders creating an
unbroken line while singing and chanting in unison, while the families
whose houses being visited would give them copper coins or gifts. He
also describes a class of artisans that draws various images on paper
and give a theatrical performance. The narrator tells the story of
legends, tales and romance drawn upon a screen of rolled paper.
[17] This kind of performance is identified as
wayang bébér, an art of story-telling that has survived for many centuries in Java.
[18]
Literature
Gold figure from the Majapahit period representing
Sutasoma being borne by the man-eater
Kalmasapada.
The literature of Majapahit was the continuation of
Javanese Kawi Hindu-Buddhist scholarly tradition that produces
kakawin poem that has been developed in Java since the 9th century
Medang Mataram era, all the way through
Kadiri and Singhasari periods. Notable Javanese literary works dated from earlier period, such as Kadiri's 11th century Kanwa's
Arjunawiwaha, 12th century Dharmaja's
Smaradahana, Sedah's
Bharatayuddha, Panuluh's
Hariwangsa also popular
Panji cycles are continuously preserved and rewritten by
Rakawi
(Hindu-Buddhist poet or scholar) in Majapahit era. Notable literary
works that was produced in Majapahit period among others are Prapanca's
Nagarakretagama, Tantular's
Sutasoma, and
Tantu Pagelaran. Popular tale of
Sri Tanjung and
Damarwulan also dated from Majapahit period. These
Old Javanese kakawins were written and composed by
Rakawis (poets) to worship the king or the gods whose incarnation the king represented.
[47]
Nagarakretagama composed by Prapanca in 1365 is a vital source of
premier historical account of Majapahit historiography. While Sutasoma
is an important literature for modern Indonesian nationhood, since the
national motto
Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, which is usually translated as
Unity in Diversity, was taken from a
pupuh (
canto) of this manuscript.
[48]
This quotation comes from Sutasoma canto 139, stanza 5. The full stanza reads as follows:
Rwâneka dhâtu winuwus Buddha Wiswa,
Bhinnêki rakwa ring apan kena parwanosen,
Mangka ng Jinatwa kalawan Siwatatwa tunggal,
Bhinnêka tunggal ika tan hana dharma mangrwa.
Originally, the poem was meant to promote the religious tolerance
between the Hindu and Buddhist religions, specifically promote the
syncretic Shiva-Buddha doctrine.
[47]
In Yingya Shenglan, Ma Huan describe the writing system used in Majapahit. For the writing, they had known the alphabet using
So-li (Chola - Coromandel/Southern India) letters. There is no paper or pen, they use
Chiao-chang (
kajang) or palm leaf (
lontar),
written by scraping it with a sharp knife. They also have a developed
language system and grammar. The way the people talk in this country is
very beautiful and soft.
[17]
Art
Bas reliefs of Tegowangi temple, dated from Majapahit period, demonstrate the East Javanese style.
The Pala school of art of the Indian
Pala Empire influenced the art and architecture of Majapahit.
[49]
Majapahit art was the continuation of East Javanese art, style and
aesthetic developed since the 11th century during Kediri and Singhasari
period. Unlike the earlier naturalistic, relaxed and flowing figures of
classical Central Java style (
Sailendra art c. 8th to 10th century), this East Javanese style demonstrates a stiffer pose, stylised and rendered in
wayang-like
figures, such as those carved on East Javanese temple's bas-reliefs.
The bas-reliefs were projected rather flat from the background. This
style was later preserved in Balinese art, especially in its classical
paintings and Balinese wayang.
The statues of Hindu gods and Buddhist deities in Majapahit art were
also the continuisation of its previous Singhasari art. The statues of
East Javanese period tends to be stiffer and frontal-formal pose,
compared to the statues of Central Javanese art (c. 9th century) that
are more Indianized style, relaxed in
tribhanga
pose. The stiffer pose of Majapahit gods statues are probably in
accordance to the statue's function as the deified portrayal self of the
dead Majapahit monarch. The carving however, are richly decorated,
especially with fine floral carving of lotus plants carved on the stela
behind the statue. Examples of Majapahit statues are the Harihara statue
from Simping temple, believed to be the deified portrayal of
King Kertarajasa, the statue of Parwati believed to be the portrayal of
Queen Tribhuwana, and statue of queen
Suhita discovered at Jebuk, Kalangbret, Tulungagung, East Java.
Clay pottery and brick masonry are popular feature in Majapahit art and architecture. The
Majapahit Terracotta art also flourished in this period. Significant numbers of
terracotta artefacts were discovered in
Trowulan. The artefacts ranges from human and animal figurines, jars, vessels, water containers,
piggy banks,
bas reliefs, architectural ornaments, roof pinnacles, floor tiles, to
pipes and roof tiles. One of the most interesting findings is Majapahit
piggy bank. Several boar-shaped piggy banks has been discovered in
Trowulan. It is probably the origin of Javanese-Indonesian word to refer
for saving or money container. The word
celengan in
Javanese and
Indonesian means both "savings" and "piggy bank". It was derived from the word
celeng which means "wild boar", the
suffix
"-an" was added to denote its likeness. One important specimen is
stored in National Museum of Indonesia, it has been reconstructed since
this large piggy bank has been found broken to pieces.
Terracotta money boxes also has been found in different shapes, such
as tubular or boxes, with slits to slip coins. Another important
terracotta artefact is the head figurine of a man popularly thought to
be the depiction of Gajah Mada, although it is not certain about who was
depicted in these figurines.
Architecture
Jabung temple near Paiton, Probolinggo, East Java, dated from Majapahit period.
In his book
Yingya Shenglan, Ma Huan also describes the
Majapahit cities: most of them do not have walls surrounding the city or
the suburbs. He describes the king's palace in Majapahit. The king’s
residence is surrounded with thick red brick walls more than three
chang
high (about 30.5 feet or 9.3 metres), with length of more than 200
paces (340 yards or 310 metres) and on the wall there are two layers of
gates, the palace is very well guarded and clean. The king's palace was a
two-storey building, each of them 3 or 4
chang high (9–14.5
metres or 30–48 feet). It had wooden plank floors and exposed mats made
from rattan or reeds (presumably palm leaves), where people sat
cross-legged. The roof was made of hardwood shingles (Javanese:
sirap) laid as tiles.
[17]
The houses of commoners had thatched roofs (
nipa palm leaves). Every family has a storage shed made of bricks, about 3 or 4
Ch'ih
(48.9 inches or 124 centimetres) above the ground, where they kept the
family property, and they lived on top of this building, to sit and
sleep.
The Majapahit temple architecture follows the east Javanese styles,
in contrast of earlier central Javanese style. This east Javanese temple
style is also dated back from Kediri period c. 11th century. The shapes
of Majapahit temples are tends to be slender and tall, with roof
constructed from multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined
roof structure curved upward smoothly creating the
perspective illussion
that the temple is perceived taller than its actual height. The
pinnacle of the temples are usually cube (mostly Hindu temples),
sometimes dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples). Although
some of temples dated from Majapahit period used
andesite or
sandstone, the red
bricks is also a popular construction material.
The 16.5-metre tall Bajang Ratu
Paduraksa gate, at Trowulan, echoed the grandeur of Majapahit.
Although
brick had been used in the
candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it.
[50] Making use of a vine sap and
palm sugar
mortar, their temples had a strong geometric quality. The example of
Majapahit temples are Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo,
Jabung in Probolinggo, and
Surawana temple
near Kediri. Jabung temple was mentioned in Nagarakretagama as
Bajrajinaparamitapura, despite some parts of its roof and pinnacles are
now missing, it is one of the most well-preserved Majapahit temple
architecture. Another example include Gunung Gangsir temple near
Pasuruan. Some of the temples are dated from earlier period but
renovated and expanded during Majapahit era, such as
Penataran, the largest temple in East Java dated back to
Kediri
era. This temple was identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and
reported being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during his royal tour across
East Java. Another notable temple of Eastern Javanese style is
Jawi temple
in Pandaan — also visited by King Hayam Wuruk, the temple was mentioned
in Nagarakretagama as Jajawa, and was dedicated as mortuary temple for
his great grandfather, King Kertanegara of Singhasari.
Some of typical architectural style are believed to be developed
during Majapahit era; such as tall and slender roofed red brick gate
commonly called as
kori agung or
paduraksa, and also split gate of
candi bentar.
The large split gate of Wringin Lawang located at Jatipasar, Trowulan,
Mojokerto, East Java, is one of the oldest and the largest surviving
candi bentar dated from Majapahit era. The
candi bentar
took shape of typical Majapahit temple structure—consists of three
parts; foot, body and tall roof—evenly split into two mirroring
structures to make a passage in the centre for people to walk through.
This type of split gate has no doors and provides no real defensive
purpose but narrowing the passage. It was probably only serve the
ceremonial and aesthetic purpose, to create the sense of grandeur,
before entering the next compound through tall roof
paduraksa gate with enclosed door. The example of
kori agung or
paduraksa
style gate is the elegant Bajang Ratu gate richly decorated with Kala
demon, cyclops and also the bas-relief telling the story of Sri Tanjung.
Those typical Majapahit architectural style has deeply influenced the
Javanese and
Balinese architecture
of later period. The current prevalence of Majapahit style pendopo
pavilion, candi bentar and paduraksa gates, was owed to the influence of
Majapahit aesthetics on Javanese and Balinese architecture.
[51]
In later period near the fall of Majapahit, the art and architecture
of Majapahit witnessed the revival of indigenous native Austronesian
megalithic architectural elements, such as
Sukuh and
Cetho temples on western slopes of
Mount Lawu.
Unlike previous Majapahit temples that demonstrate typical Hindu
architecture of high-rise towering structure, the shape of these temples
are
step pyramid, quite similar to Mesoamerican
pyramids. The stepped pyramid structure called
Punden Berundak (stepped mounds) is a common megalithic structure during
Indonesian prehistoric era before the adoption of Hindu-Buddhist culture.
Economy
Also in
Yingya Shenglan,
Ma Huan reported the Javanese economy and market. Rice is harvested
twice a year, and its grain is small. They also harvest white sesame and
lentils, but there is no wheat. This land produces
sapan wood (useful to produce red dye), diamond, sandalwood, incense,
puyang pepper,
cantharides
(green beetles used for medicine), steel, turtles, tortoise shell,
strange and rare birds; such as a large parrot as big as a hen, red and
green parrots, five-colored parrots, (all of them can imitate the human
voice), also guinea fowl, ' bird hanging upside down ', five-coloured
pigeon, peacock, 'betel tree bird', pearl bird, and green pigeons. The
beasts here are strange: there are white deer, white monkey, and various
other animals. Pigs, goats, cattle, horses, poultries, and there are
all types of ducks, however donkeys and geese are not found.
[17]
For the fruits, there are all kinds of bananas, coconut, sugarcane, pomegranate, lotus,
mang-chi-shi (
manggis or
mangosteen), watermelon and
lang Ch'a (
langsat or
lanzones).
Mang-chi-shi
– is something like a pomegranate, peel it like an orange, it has four
lumps of white flesh, sweet and sour taste and very delicious.
Lang-ch’a
is a fruit similar to Loquat, but larger, contained three blocky white
flesh with sweet and sour taste. Sugarcane has white stems, large and
coarse, with roots reaching 3
chang (30 feet 7 inches). In addition, all types of squash and vegetables are there, just a shortage of peach, plum and leek.
[17]
Taxes and fines were paid in cash. Javanese economy had been partly
monetised since the late 8th century, using gold and silver coins.
Previously, the 9th-century
Wonoboyo hoard
discovered in Central Java shows that ancient Javan gold coins were
seed-shaped, similar to corn, while the silver coins were similar to
buttons. In about the year 1300, in the reign of Majapahit's first king,
an important change took place: the indigenous coinage was completely
replaced by imported Chinese copper cash. About 10,388 ancient Chinese
coins weighing about 40 kg were even unearthed from the backyard of a
local commoner in
Sidoarjo
in November 2008. Indonesian Ancient Relics Conservation Bureau (BP3)
of East Java verified that those coins dated as early as Majapahit era.
[52]
The reason for using foreign currency is not given in any source, but
most scholars assume it was due to the increasing complexity of Javanese
economy and a desire for a
currency
system that used much smaller denominations suitable for use in
everyday market transactions. This was a role for which gold and silver
are not well suited.
[30](p107) These
kepeng
Chinese coins were thin rounded copper coins with a square hole in the
centre of it. The hole was meant to tie together the money in a string
of coins. These small changes—the imported Chinese copper coins—enabled
Majapahit further invention, a method of savings by using a slitted
earthenware coin containers. These are commonly found in Majapahit
ruins, the slit is the small opening to put the coins in. The most
popular shape is boar-shaped
celengan (piggy bank).
Some idea of scale of the internal economy can be gathered from
scattered data in inscriptions. The Canggu inscriptions dated 1358
mentions 78 ferry crossings in the country (mandala Java).
[30](p107)
Majapahit inscriptions mention a large number of occupational
specialities, ranging from gold and silver smiths to drink vendors and
butchers. Although many of these occupations had existed in earlier
times, the proportion of the population earning an income from
non-agrarian pursuits seems to have become even greater during the
Majapahit era.
The great prosperity of Majapahit was probably due to two factors.
Firstly, the northeast lowlands of Java were suitable for rice
cultivation,
and during Majapahit's prime numerous irrigation projects were
undertaken, some with government assistance. Secondly, Majapahit's ports
on the north coast were probably significant stations along the route
to obtain the spices of
Maluku, and as the spices passed through Java they would have provided an important source of income for Majapahit.
[30](p107)
The Nagarakretagama states that the fame of the ruler of Wilwatikta
(a synonym for Majapahit) attracted foreign merchants from far and wide,
including Indians, Khmers, Siamese, and Chinese among others. While in
later period,
Yingya Shenglan mentioned that large numbers of
Chinese traders and Muslim merchants from west (from Arab and India, but
mostly from Muslim states in Sumatra and Malay peninsula) are settling
in Majapahit port cities, such as Tuban, Gresik and Hujung Galuh
(Surabaya). A special tax was levied against some foreigners, possibly
those who had taken up semi-permanent residence in Java and conducted
some type of enterprise other than foreign trade. The Majapahit Empire
had trading links with Chinese
Ming dynasty,
Annam and
Champa in today Vietnam,
Cambodia, Siamese
Ayutthayan, Burmese
Martaban and the south Indian
Vijayanagara Empire.
Administration
During the reign of
Hayam Wuruk,
Majapahit employed a well-organised bureaucratic structure for
administrative purposes. The hierarchy and structure relatively remain
intact and unchanged throughout Majapahit history.
[53] The king is the paramount ruler, as the
chakravartin
he is considered as the universal ruler and believed to be the living
god on earth. The king holds the highest political authority and
legitimacy.
Bureaucracy officials
During
his daily administration, the king is assisted by bureaucratic state
officials that also included the close relatives of the kings that hold
certain esteemed titles. The royal order or edict usually transmitted
from the king to the high officials well to their subordinates. The
officials in Majapahit courts are:
-
- Rakryan Mahamantri Katrini, usually reserved for the king's heir
- Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran, the board of ministers that conduct the daily administration
- Dharmmadhyaksa, the officials of laws, state laws as well as religious laws
- Dharmma-upapatti, the officials concerning religious affairs
Within the ministers of
Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran there is the most important and the highest minister titled
Rakryan Mapatih or
Patih Hamangkubhumi. This position is analogous to
prime minister,
and together with king, they determine the important state policies,
including war or peace. Among the Dharmmadhyaksa officials there is
Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasewan (State's highest Hindu
Shivaist priest) and
Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasogatan (State's highest Buddhist priest), both are the religious laws authorities of each dharmic faiths.
There is also the board of advisors which consists of the elders within royal family called
Bhattara Saptaprabhu. This council consists of seven influential elders—mostly directly related to the king. They are the
Bhres
(Duke or Duchess) acted as regional kings, the rulers of Majapahit
provinces. This council congregate, offer advices, gave consideration to
the king, and often formed an assembly to judge a certain important
case in the court. Example of their office was, their sentence to
temporarily suspend Mahamantri Gajah Mada, as a punishment since he was
held responsible for the shamefully disastrous
Bubat incident. The council also sentenced the execution of Raden Gajah (Narapati) for decapitating Bhre Wirabhumi in
Paregreg war.
[54](p481)
Territorial hierarchy
Majapahit recognise the hierarchy classifications of lands within its realm:
-
- Bhumi: the kingdom, ruled by the king
- Nagara: the province, ruled by the rajya (governor), or natha (lord), or bhre (prince or duke)
- Watek: the regency, administered by wiyasa,
- Kuwu: the district, administered by lurah,
- Wanua: the village, administered by thani,
- Kabuyutan: the hamlet or sanctuary place.
Majapahit core realm and provinces (Mancanagara) in eastern and central parts of Java, including islands of Madura and Bali.
During its formation, Majapahit traditional realm only consists of
lesser vassal kingdoms (provinces) in eastern and central Java. This
region is ruled by provincial kings called
Paduka Bhattara with the title
Bhre.
This title is the highest position below the monarch and similar to
duke or duchess. Usually this position reserved for the close relatives
of the king. Their duty is to administer their own provinces, collect
taxes, send annual tributes to the capital, and manage the defences of
their borders.
During the reign of Hayam Wuruk (1350– 1389) there were 12 provinces of Majapahit, administered by king's close relatives:
| Kahuripan (or Janggala, today Sidoarjo) |
Bhre Kahuripan |
Tribhuwanatunggadewi |
queen mother |
| Daha (former capital of Kediri) |
Bhre Daha |
Rajadewi Maharajasa |
aunt and also mother-in-law |
| Tumapel (former capital of Singhasari) |
Bhre Tumapel |
Kertawardhana |
father |
| Wengker (today Ponorogo) |
Bhre Wengker |
Wijayarajasa |
uncle and also father-in-law |
| Matahun (today Bojonegoro) |
Bhre Matahun |
Rajasawardhana |
husband of the duchess of Lasem, king's cousin |
| Wirabhumi (Blambangan) |
Bhre Wirabhumi |
Bhre Wirabhumi[vii] |
son |
| Paguhan |
Bhre Paguhan |
Singhawardhana |
brother in-law |
| Kabalan |
Bhre Kabalan |
Kusumawardhani[viii] |
daughter |
| Pawanuan |
Bhre Pawanuan |
Surawardhani |
niece |
| Lasem (a coastal town in Central Java) |
Bhre Lasem |
Rajasaduhita Indudewi |
cousin |
| Pajang (today Surakarta) |
Bhre Pajang |
Rajasaduhita Iswari |
sister |
| Mataram (today Yogyakarta) |
Bhre Mataram |
Wikramawardhana[viii] |
nephew |
Territorial division
When
Majapahit entered the thalassocratic imperial phase during the
administration of Gajah Mada, several overseas vassal states were
included within the Majapahit sphere of influence, as the result the new
larger territorial concept was defined:
- Negara Agung, or the Grand State, the core kingdom.
The traditional or initial area of Majapahit during its formation before
entering the imperial phase. This includes the capital city and the
surrounding areas where the king effectively exercises his government.
The area in and around royal capital of Trowulan, port of Canggu and sections of Brantas River valley near the capital, also mountainous areas south and southeast of capital, all the way to Pananggungan and Arjuno-Welirang
peaks, are the core realm of the kingdom. The Brantas river valley
corridor, connecting Majapahit Trowulan area to Canggu and estuarine
areas in Kahuripan (Sidoarjo) and Hujung Galuh port (Surabaya) are considered as parts of Negara Agung.
- Mancanegara, areas surrounding Negara Agung —
traditionally refer to Majapahit provinces in East and Central Java.
This area covered the eastern half of Java, with all its provinces ruled
by the Bhres (dukes), the king's close relatives. These areas
are directly influenced by Javanese Majapahit court culture, and obliged
to pay annual tributes. These areas usually possess their own rulers
that might be directly related, foster an alliance or intermarried with
the Majapahit royal family. Majapahit stationed their officials and
officers in these places and regulate their foreign trade activities and
collect taxes, yet they enjoyed substantial internal autonomy. This
includes the rest of Java island, Madura and Bali.
However, in later period, overseas provinces which has developed
culture reflected or comparable to those of Java, or possess significant
trading importance, are also considered as mancanegara. Either
the province has their own native rulers subject (vassal) to the king,
or a regent appointed and sent by the king to rule the region. This
realm includes Dharmasraya, Pagaruyung, Lampung and Palembang in Sumatra.
- Nusantara, areas which do not reflect Javanese
culture, but are included as colonies and they had to pay annual
tribute. They had their native polity intact, enjoyed substantial
autonomy and internal freedom, and Majapahit did not necessarily station
their officials or military officers here; however, any challenges on
Majapahit oversight might draw severe response. These areas such as the
vassal kingdoms and colonies in Malay peninsula, Borneo, Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi and Maluku.
The extent of Majapahit according to Nagarakretagama.
Nagarakretagama mentioned more than 80 places in the archipelago described as the vassal states.
[7] In Canto 13, several lands on
Sumatra are mentioned, and some possibly correspond to contemporary areas:
Jambi,
Palembang, Teba (
Muaro Tebo), and
Dharmasraya. Also mentioned are Kandis, Kahwas,
Minangkabau,
Siak,
Rokan,
Kampar and
Pane, Kampe,
Haru (coastal
North Sumatra, today around
Medan) and
Mandailing. Tamiyang (
Aceh Tamiang Regency), negara Perlak (
Peureulak) and
Padang Lawas, are noted in the west, together with Samudra (
Samudra Pasai) and
Lamuri, Batan (
Bintan),
Lampung, and
Barus. Also listed are the states of Tanjungnegara (believed to be on
Borneo):
Kapuas Katingan,
Sampit, Kota Lingga,
Kota Waringin,
Sambas, and Lawas.
In Nagarakretagama Canto 14 more lands are noted: Kadandangan,
Landa, Samadang, Tirem, Sedu (
Sarawak), Barune (
Brunei), Kalka,
Saludung (Manila), Solot (
Sulu), Pasir,
Barito, Sawaku,
Tabalung, and
Tanjung Kutei. In Hujung Medini (
Malay Peninsula),
Pahang is mentioned first. Next
Langkasuka, Saimwang,
Kelantan and
Trengganu,
Johor,
Paka,
Muar,
Dungun, Tumasik (where
Singapore is today), Kelang (
Klang Valley) and
Kedah, Jerai (
Gunung Jerai), Kanjapiniran, all are united.
Also in Canto 14 are territories east of Java:
Badahulu and
Lo Gajah (part of today's
Bali). Gurun and Sukun,
Taliwang, Sapi (Sape town, east end of Sumbawa island, by the
Sape Strait) and
Dompo,
Sang Hyang Api,
Bima. Hutan Kadali (
Buru island). Gurun island, and
Lombok Merah. Together with prosperous
Sasak (central, north and east
Lombok) are already ruled. Bantayan with
Luwu. Further east are Udamakatraya (
Sangir and
Talaud). Also mentioned are
Makassar,
Buton,
Banggai, Kunir,
Galiao with
Selayar,
Sumba,
Solot,
Muar. Also Wanda(n) (
Banda island),
Ambon or
Maluku islands, Kai-islands, Wanin (Onin peninsula, today
Fakfak Regency, West Papua),
Seran,
Timor and other islands.
The true nature of Majapahit
suzerainty is still a subject of study and even has sparked controversy. Nagarakretagama describes Majapahit as the center of a huge
mandala
consists of 98 tributaries stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea. Some
scholars has discounted this claim as merely a sphere of limited
influence, or even just a statement of geographical knowledge.
[4](p87) Scholars, such as historian Hasan Djafar, argued that
Nusantara
should be translated as "other islands", which denotes that they are
beyond Majapahit sovereignty. He argued that Majapahit territory was
confined only in East and Central Java.
[55]
Nevertheless, the Javanese overseas prestige and influence during the lifetime of Hayam Wuruk was undoubtedly considerable.
[7]
Majapahit fleets must have periodically visited many places in the
archipelago to acquire formal submission, or the splendour of Majapahit
court might has attracted regional rulers to sent tribute, without any
intention to submit to Majapahit's order.
[4](p87)
All of those three categories—the
Negara Agung, Mancanegara and
Nusantara,
were within the sphere of influence of the Majapahit empire, however
Majapahit also recognise the fourth realm that defines its foreign
diplomatic relations:
- Mitreka Satata, literally means "partners with common
order". It refers to independent foreign states considered as
Majapahit's equals, not the subject of Majapahit powers. According to
Nagarakretagama canto 15, the foreign states are Syangkayodhyapura (Ayutthaya of Siam), Dharmmanagari (Negara Sri Dharmaraja) in southern Thailand, Rajapura (Ratchaburi) and Singhanagari (Singora or modern Songkla), Marutma (Martaban or Mottama, modern Southern Myanmar), Champa (today Southern Vietnam), Kamboja (Cambodia), and Yawana (Annam).[56][57] Mitreka Satata can be considered as Majapahit's allies,
since other foreign kingdoms in China and India were not included in
this category, although Majapahit is known to have conducted foreign
relations with these nations.
The model of political formations and power diffusion from its core
in the Majapahit capital city that radiates through its overseas
possessions, was later identified by historians as "
mandala"
model. The term mandala derived from Sanskrit "circle" to explain the
typical ancient Southeast Asian polity that was defined by its centre
rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other
tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration.
[58]
The territories belongs within Majapahit Mandala sphere of influence
were those categorised as Mancanegara and Nusantara. These areas usually
have their own indigenous rulers, enjoy substantial autonomy and have
their own political institution intact without further integration into
Majapahit administration. The same mandala model also applied to
previous empires;
Srivijaya and
Angkor, and also Majapahit's neighbouring mandalas; Ayutthaya and Champa.
In later period, Majapahit's hold on its overseas possessions began to wane. According to
Wingun Pitu inscription (dated 1447) it was mentioned that Majapahit consist of 14 provinces, that administrated by the ruler titled
Bhre.
[59] The provinces or vassal areas are:
Legacy
Pura Maospahit ("Majapahit Temple") in
Denpasar, Bali, demonstrate the typical Majapahit red brick architecture.
Majapahit was the largest empire ever to form in Southeast Asia.
[30](p107)
Although its political power beyond the core area in east Java was
diffuse, constituting mainly ceremonial recognition of suzerainty,
Majapahit society developed a high degree of sophistication in both
commercial and artistic activities. Its capital was inhabited by a
cosmopolitan population among whom literature and art flourished.
[30](p107)
Numbers of local legends and
folklores
in the region had mentioned about the Majapahit kingdom. Other than
Javanese sources, some regional legends mentioning Majapahit kingdom or
its general Gajah Mada, also can be found; from Aceh, Minangkabau,
Palembang, Malay Peninsula, Sunda, Brunei, Bali to Sumbawa. Most of them
mentioned about the incoming Javanese forces to their land, which was
probably a local testament of the empire's expansive nature that once
dominating the archipelago. The
Hikayat Raja Pasai, a 14th-century
Aceh chronicle tell a Majapahit naval invasion against
Samudra Pasai
in 1350. The chronicle described that the Majapahit invasion was a
punishment for Sultan Ahmad Malik Az-Zahir's crime on ruining a royal
marriage between Pasai Prince Tun Abdul Jalil and Raden Galuh
Gemerencang, a Majapahit princess — that led to the death of the royal
couple.
[26]
The Majapahit style minaret of Kudus Mosque.
In West Sumatra, the
legend of Minangkabau mentioned an invading foreign prince — associated with Javanese Majapahit kingdom — being defeated in a buffalo fight.
[38] In West Java, the
Pasunda Bubat tragedy caused a myth to revolve around Indonesians, which forbids marriage between a
Sundanese and a
Javanese, as it would be unsustainable and only bring misery to the couple.
[60] In Malay peninsula, the
Malay annals mentioned the legend of the fall of
Singapura to Majapahit forces in 1398 was due to the betrayal of Sang Rajuna Tapa that opened the fortified city gate.
[61] In
Brunei, the folk legend of Lumut Lunting and Pilong-Pilongan islands in
Brunei Bay also connected to Majapahit.
[62]
Several Javanese legends were originated or become popular during Majapahit period. The
Panji cycles, the tale of
Sri Tanjung, and the epic of
Damarwulan, are popular tales in Javanese and
Balinese literatures.
The tales of Panji was dated from older period during Kediri kingdom,
while the tale of Sri Tanjung and the epic of Damarwulan took place
during Majapahit period. These tales remained a popular theme in
Javanese culture of later period during Mataram Sultanate, and often
became the source of inspiration for
wayang shadow puppet performance,
ketoprak and
topeng
dance drama. The Panji tales in particular have spread from East Java
to become a source of inspiration for literature and dance drama
throughout the region, as far as Malay peninsula, Cambodia and Siam
where he is known as Raden Inao or Enau (
Thai:
อิเหนา) of Kurepan.
Majapahit had a momentous and lasting influence on
Indonesian architecture. The descriptions of the architecture of the capital's pavilions (
pendopo) in the
Nagarakretagama evoke the Javanese
Kraton also the
Balinese temples and palace compounds of today. The Majapahit architectural style that often employs
terracotta and
red brick heavily influenced the architecture of Java and Bali in the later period. The Majapahit style
candi bentar split gate, the
kori or
paduraksa towering red brick gate, and also
pendopo pavilion have become ubiquitous in Javanese and Balinese architectural features, as seen in
Menara Kudus Mosque,
Keraton Kasepuhan and Sunyaragi park in
Cirebon,
Mataram Sultanate royal cemetery in
Kota Gede,
Yogyakarta, and various palaces and temples in Bali.
[51]
Bas relief from
Candi Penataran describes the Javanese-style
pendopo pavilion, commonly found across Java and Bali.
The vivid, rich and festive
Balinese culture is considered as one of Majapahit legacy. The Javanese Hindu civilisation since the era of
Airlangga to the era of Majapahit kings has profoundly influenced and shaped the Balinese culture and
history.
[64]
The ancient links and Majapahit legacy is observable in many ways;
architecture, literature, religious rituals, dance-drama and artforms.
The aesthetics and style of bas-reliefs in Majapahit East Javanese
temples were preserved and copied in Balinese temples. It is also due to
the fact that after the fall of the empire, many Majapahit nobles,
artisans and priests had taken refuge either in the interior mountainous
region of East Java or across the narrow strait to Bali. Indeed, in
some ways the
Kingdom of Bali was the successor of Majapahit. Large numbers of Majapahit manuscripts, such as
Nagarakretagama,
Sutasoma,
Pararaton and
Tantu Pagelaran,
were being well-kept in royal libraries of Bali and Lombok, and
provides the glimpse and valuable historical records on Majapahit. The
Majapahit Hindu-Javanese culture has shaped the culture of Bali, that
led to popular expression; "without Java there is no Bali". Yet in
return, Bali is credited as the last stronghold to safeguard and
preserve the ancient Hindu Javanese civilisation.
In weaponry, the Majapahit expansion is believed to be responsible for the widespread use of the
keris
dagger in Southeast Asia; from Java, Bali, Sumatra, Malaysia, Brunei,
Southern Thailand, to the Philippines. Although it has been suggested
that the keris, and native daggers similar to it, predate Majapahit,
nevertheless the empire expansion contributed to its popularity and
diffussion in the region around the year 1492.
[65] For Indonesians in later centuries, Majapahit became a symbol of past greatness. The Islamic sultanates of
Demak,
Pajang, and
Mataram sought to establish their legitimacy in relation to the Majapahit.
[8](p40) The Demak claimed a line of succession through Kertabumi, as its founder
Raden Patah,
in court chronicles was said to be the son of Kertabumi with Putri
Cina, a Chinese princess, who had been sent away before her son was
born.
[8](pp36–37) Sultan Agung's conquest of
Wirasaba
(present day Mojoagung) in 1615—during that time just a small town
without significant strategic and economic value—led by the sultan
himself, may probably have had such symbolic importance as it was the
location of the former Majapahit capital.
[8](p43) Central Javanese palaces have traditions and
genealogy that attempt to prove links back to the Majapahit royal lines—usually in the form of a grave as a vital
link in Java — where legitimacy is enhanced by such a connection.
[citation needed] Bali in particular was heavily influenced by Majapahit and the
Balinese consider themselves to be the true heirs of the kingdom.
[50]
The high reliefs of Gajah Mada and Majapahit history depicted in
Monas, has become the source of Indonesian national pride of past greatness.
Modern Indonesian nationalists, including those of the early 20th-century
Indonesian National Revival, have invoked the Majapahit Empire.
[6] Indonesian founding fathers—especially
Sukarno and
Mohammad Yamin, built a historical construct around Majapahit to argue for the ancient unified realm, as a predecessor of modern Indonesia.
[55]
The memory of its greatness remains in Indonesia, and is sometimes seen
as a precedent for the current political boundaries of the Republic.
[8](p19) Many of modern Indonesian national symbols derived from Majapahit Hindu-Buddhist elements. The Indonesian national flag
"Sang Merah Putih"
("Red and White") or sometimes called "Dwiwarna" ("The bicolor"),
derived from the Majapahit royal colour. The Indonesian Navy flag of red
and white stripes also has a Majapahit origin. The Indonesian national
motto, "
Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", is a quotation from an
Old Javanese poem
"Kakawin Sutasoma", written by a Majapahit poet, Mpu Tantular.
[66]
The Indonesian coat of arms,
Garuda Pancasila, also derives from
Javanese Hindu elements. The statue and relief of
Garuda have been found in many temples in Java such as
Prambanan from the ancient
Mataram era, and the
Panataran as well as the
Sukuh temple dated from the Majapahit era. The notable statue of Garuda is the statue of the king
Airlangga depicted as
Vishnu riding
Garuda.
Ancient red brick canal discovered in Trowulan.
In its propaganda from the 1920s, the
Communist Party of Indonesia presented its vision of a classless society as a reincarnation of a romanticised Majapahit.
[8](p174) It was invoked by Sukarno for nation building and by the
New Order as an expression of state expansion and consolidation.
[67] Like Majapahit, the modern state of Indonesia covers vast territory and is politically centred on Java.
Palapa, the series of communication satellites owned by Telkom, an Indonesian telecommunication company, was named after
Sumpah Palapa, the famous oath taken by
Gajah Mada,
who swore that he would not taste any spice as long as he had not
succeeded in unifying Nusantara (Indonesian archipelago). This ancient
oath of unification signifies the Palapa satellite as the modern means
to unify the Indonesian archipelago by way of
telecommunication. The name was chosen by president
Suharto, and the program was started in February 1975.
During the last half year of 2008, the Indonesian government
sponsored a massive exploration on the site that is believed to be the
place where the palace of Majapahit once stood.
Jero Wacik, the Indonesian Minister of Culture and Tourism stated that the
Majapahit Park
would be built on the site and completed as early as 2009, to prevent
further damage caused by home-made brick industries that developed in
the surrounding area.
[68]
Nevertheless, the project leaves a huge attention to some historians,
since constructing the park's foundation in Segaran site located in
south side of
Trowulan Museum
will inevitably damage the site itself. Ancient bricks which are
historically valuable were found scattered on the site. The government
then argued that the method they were applying were less destructive
since digging method were used instead of drilling.
[69]
List of rulers
Genealogy diagram of
Rajasa dynasty, the royal family of Singhasari and Majapahit. Rulers are highlighted with period of reign.
The rulers of Majapahit was the dynastic continuity of the
Singhasari kings, which started by
Sri Ranggah Rajasa, the founder of
Rajasa dynasty in the late 13th century.
- Raden Wijaya, styled Krirtarajasa Jayavardhana[23]:201 (1294–1309)
- Kalagamet, styled Jayanagara (1309–1328)[23]:233–234
- Sri Gitarja, styled Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi (1328–1350)[23]:234
- Hayam Wuruk, styled Sri Rajasanagara (1350–1389),[23]:239 Majapahit Golden Age
- Wikramawardhana[23]:241 styled Bhra Hyang Wisesa Aji Wikrama, (1389–1429), Majapahit civil war Paregreg war, success defeating Bhre Wirabhumi
- Ratu (queen) Suhita (1429–1447)[23]:242
- Kritavijaya, styled Brawijaya I (1447–1451)[23]:242
- Rajasavardhana,[23]:242 born Bhre Pamotan, styled Brawijaya II (1451–1453)
- Interregnum (1453–1456)
- Bhre Wengker, Purvavisesha[23]:242 or Girishawardhana, styled Brawijaya III (1456–1466)
- Singhavikramavardhana,[23]:242 Pandanalas, or Suraprabhawa, styled Brawijaya IV (1466–1468 or 1478[8](p18))
- Bhre Kertabhumi, styled Brawijaya V (1468–1478)
- Girindrawardhana, styled Brawijaya VI (1478–1489)
- Prabu Udara, styled Brawijaya VII (1489–1517)
Majapahit in popular culture
Celebrated
as 'the golden era of the archipelago', the Majapahit empire has
inspired many writers and artists (and continues to do so) to create
their works based on this era, or to describe and mention it. The impact
of the Majapahit theme on popular culture can be seen in the following:
- Sandyakalaning Majapahit (1933), or Twilight/Sunset in
Majapahit is an historical romance that took place during the fall of
Majapahit empire, written by Sanusi Pane.
- Panji Koming (since 1979), a weekly comic strip by Dwi Koendoro published in the Sunday edition of Kompas,
telling the everyday life of Panji Koming, a common Majapahit citizen.
Although it took place in the Majapahit era, the comic strip serves as
witty satire and criticism of modern Indonesian society. From a political, social, cultural and current point of view, Indonesia is described as the 'reincarnation' of the Majapahit empire. The current Indonesian president is often portrayed as a Majapahit monarch or prime minister.
- Saur Sepuh (1987–1991), a radio drama and film by Niki
Kosasih. Begun as a popular radio drama program in the late 1980s, Saur
Sepuh is based on 15th-century Java, centred around the story about a
fictional hero named Brama Kumbara, the king of Madangkara, a fictional
kingdom neighbour of the Pajajaran.
In several stories the Paregreg war is described, that is to say the
civil war of Majapahit between Wikramawardhana and Bhre Wirabhumi. This
part has been made into a single feature film entitled 'Saur Sepuh' as
well.
- Tutur Tinular, a radio drama and film by S Tidjab. Tutur Tinular is a martial art
historical epic fictional story with the Majapahit era serving as the
background of the story. The story also involved a romance between the
hero named Arya Kamandanu and his Chinese lover Mei Shin.
- Wali Songo, the film tells the story of nine Muslim saints ('wali') who spread Islam to Java. The story took place near the end of the Majapahit era and the formation of Demak. It describes the decaying Majapahit empire where royals are fighting each other for power while the commoners suffer.
- Senopati Pamungkas (1986, reprinted in 2003), a martial
art-historical epic novel by Arswendo Atmowiloto. It takes place in the
late Singhasari period and formation of Majapahit. This novel describes
the sagas, royal intrigues, and romance of the formation of the kingdom
as well as the adventure of the main character, a commoner named Upasara
Wulung and his forbidden love affair with princess Gayatri Rajapatni,
whom later becomes the consort of Raden Wijaya, the first king of Majapahit.
- Imperium Majapahit, a comic book series by Jan Mintaraga,
published by Elexmedia Komputindo. This series tells the history of
Majapahit from its formation until the decline.
- Puteri Gunung Ledang (2004), a Malaysian epic film based on a traditional Malay legend. This film recounts the love story between Gusti Putri Retno Dumilah, a Majapahit princess, and Hang Tuah, a Malaccan admiral.
- Gajah Mada, a pentalogy written by Langit Kresna Hariadi depicting a fictionalised detail of Gajah Mada's life from the Kuti rebellion up to the Bubat War.
- Dyah Pitaloka (2007), a novel written by Hermawan Aksan, fictionalising the detailed life story of Sundanese princess Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi set around the Bubat War. The novel virtually takes the same context and was inspired by the Kidung Sundayana.
- Jung Jawa (2009), an anthology of short stories written by
Rendra Fatrisna Kurniawan, imagining the life of the Nusantara people,
published by Babel Publishing.
- Civilization 5: Brave New World (2013), where Gajah Mada appeared as one of the leaders of a great civilisation in the second expansion of the Civilization 5 game. He is the leader of the Indonesian civilisation, with the emblem of the Indonesian empire being the Surya Majapahit, although in the game the empire is known as the "Indonesian empire" instead.
- Later, in Civilization 6 (2016), a downloadable content has one of its rulers, Dyah Gitarja
(referred as Gitarja in-game) as the leader of the Indonesian
civilization, with the emblem being a simpler version of the Surya
Majapahit.
- On the Rise of the Rajas expansion pack from Age of Empires II, Gajah Mada appears in a campaign detailing his rise and then fall after the Pasunda Bubat tragedy.
See also
Notes
Surya Majapahit (the Sun of Majapahit) is the emblem commonly found in Majapahit ruins. It served as the symbol of the Majapahit empire.
[16] cited in [8](pp18 and 311)
The year is marked among Javanese today with candrasengkala "sirna ilang kertaning bumi" (the wealth of earth disappeared and diminished) (sirna = 0, ilang = 0, kerta = 4, bumi = 1).
V.[44](p50)
Another paper noted that the reasons for the attacks Demak (led by
Adipati Yunus) to Majapahit (Girindrawardhana period) is a backlash
against Girindrawardhana who had defeated Adipati Yunus' grandfather
Prabu Bhre Kertabumi (Prabu Brawijaya V). Read [45](p451)
In the same fashion as traditional costumes of how Balinese wore unstitched sarong around their waist or how Javanese wore kain batik around their waist
One's head is considered sacred, since it is where the soul resides, beliefs and customs still practised in modern Indonesia.
Bhre
Wirabhumi is actually the title: the Duke of Wirabhumi (Blambangan),
the real name is unknown. He is referred to as Bhre Wirabhumi in
Pararaton. He married Nagawardhani, the king's niece.
- Kusumawardhani (king's daughter) married Wikramawardhana (king's nephew), the couple became joint heirs.
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Sabrizain
Abshire 2011, p. 19&24
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Pararaton, p. 40, " .... bhre Kertabhumi ..... bhre prabhu sang mokta ring kadaton i saka sunyanora-yuganing-wong, 1400".
See also: Hasan Djafar, Girindrawardhana, 1978, p. 50.
Poesponegoro & Notosusanto (1990), pp. 448–451.
MB. Rahimsyah. Legenda dan Sejarah Lengkap Walisongo. (Amanah, Surabaya, tth)
Marwati
Djoenoed Poesponegoro dan Nugroho Notosusanto. Sejarah Nasional
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Encyclopedia of world art by Bernard Samuel Myers p.35-36
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Nagarakretagama pupuh (canto) 15, these states are mentioned as Mitreka Satata, literary means "partners with common order".
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